Straight-Line Equations: Slope-Intercept Form

Straight-line equations, or "linear" equations,graph as straight lines, and have simple variableexpressions with no exponents on them. If you see an equation with only x and y — as opposed to, say x² or sqrt(y) — then you're dealing with a straight-line equation.
There are different types of "standard" formats for straight lines; the particular "standard" format your book refers to may differ from that used in some other books. (There is, ironically, no standard definition of "standard form".) The various "standard" forms are often holdovers from a few centuries ago, when mathematicians couldn't handle very complicated equations, so they tended to obsess about the simple cases. Nowadays, you likely needn't worry too much about the "standard" forms; this lesson will only cover the more-helpful forms.

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I think the most useful form of straight-line equations is the "slope-intercept" form:

y = mx + b

This is called the slope-intercept form because "m" is the slope and "b" gives the y-intercept. (For a review of how this equation is used for graphing, look at slope and graphing.)
I like slope-intercept form the best. It is in the form "y=", which makes it easiest to plug into, either for graphing or doing word problems. Just plug in your x-value; the equation is already solved for y. Also, this is the only format you can plug into your (nowadays obligatory) graphing calculator; you have to have a "y=" format to use a graphing utility. But the best part about the slope-intercept form is that you can read off the slope and the intercept right from the equation. This is great for graphing, and can be quite useful for word problems. C

Importance of Framing Selection

The selection of structural steel for a building’s framing system brings numerous benefits to a project. All other materials are measured against the standard of structural steel and structural steel is still the material of choice. These benefits include:

 Speed of Construction

Other materials may be able to start field work sooner, but the rapid design, fabrication and erection cycle with structural steel will allow the framing system to finish sooner and be available earlier to other trades.

Structural steel enhances construction productivity because of its shop fabrication while maintaining tight construction tolerances. Field placed material will always lag behind the productivity curve. Productivity enhancements for construction will occur not in labor based field activities, but in shop based technology enhancements.   Technology exists today in the form of 3-D interoperability and Building Information Modeling to allow the close cooperation between designers and steel specialty contractors in the design, fabrication and erection of building structures. This technology allows designs to save both time and dollars in the construction process by integrating fabricating and erection efficiencies in the design and passing design models between analysis, detailing and fabricating operations. This is full integration is process unique to structural steel generating significant cost savings. Rapid erection in all seasons with close tolerances being maintained for integration with other building systems and minimal construction site waste is achievable only with structural steel. Other materials may be able to start field work sooner, but the rapid design, fabrication and erection cycle with structural steel will allow the framing system to finish sooner and be available earlier to other trades.

Cell organization

Cells are divided into several compartments, each with a characteristic structure,biochemical composition, and function (see illustration). These compartments arecalled organelles. They are delimited by membranes composed of phospholipidbilayers and a number of proteins specialized for each type of organelle. Alleukaryotic cells have a nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope, and a plasmamembrane that borders the whole cell. Most eukaryotic cells also haveendoplasmic reticulum, a Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, mitochondria, andperoxisomes. Plant cells have chloroplasts for photosynthesis in addition to theorganelles that both they and animal cells possess. These organelles aresuspended in a gellike cytoplasmic matrix composed of three types of proteinpolymers called actin filaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Inaddition to holding the cell together, the actin filaments and microtubules act astracks for several different types of motor proteins that are responsible for cellmotility and organelle movements within the cytoplasm.

Section through an animal cell showing the majorcomponents visible by electron microscopy

A major challenge in the field of cell biology is to learn how each organelle andthe cytoplasmic matrix are assembled and distributed in the cytoplasm. This is avery complex process since cells consist of more than 2000 different proteinmolecules together with a large number of lipids, polysaccharides, and nucleicacids, including both deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and many different types ofribonucleic acid (RNA). See Nucleic acid

Traditional Theory of Cost

IntroductionCost is the most important factor which influence the supply of commodities. Since highest cost reduces the profits of the producer it is very important factor consider very seriously by the producer.

The theory of cost is very important inEconomics. Now, the theory has two versions like traditional version and modern version. Here the hub briefly explaining the traditional theory of cost.

Concept of costs

When a producer want to produce commodities, he should contribute the factors of production. Then only he can produce the commodity. Further he required to spend many other expenses like taxes, duties etc. So, the cost refers to the expenditure incurred by a firm to produce goods and services.

Types of costs

On the basis of the nature of the expenditure costs can be classified in to many. Some of them are described below.

Money costs / explicit costs : simply money costs refers to the total money expenditure incurred by a firm due to its production activities. Wages to labors, salaries to staffs, expenses to purchase raw materials, rent etc. are the examples for money cost. It is also called as explicit costs.

Diagrams of Cost Curves

Readers Question Economists describe both short run and long run average cost curves as u shaped. Provide a brief explanation  why each of these curves might be considered u shaped.

Short Run Cost curves are U shaped because of diminishing returns.

In the short run capital is fixed. After a certain point, increasing extra workers leads to declining productivity. Therefore, as you employ more workers the Marginal Cost increases.

Diagram of Marginal Cost 

Beam – Definition and Types

A beam is a structural member used for bearing loads. It is typically used for resisting vertical loads, shear forces and bending moments.

Types of Beams:

Beams can be classified into many types based on three main criteria. They are as follows:

1. Based on geometry:
   1. Straight beam – Beam with straight profile
   2. Curved beam – Beam with curved profile
   3. Tapered beam – Beam with tapered cross section
   4. Based on the shape of cross section:
      1. I-beam – Beam with ‘I’ cross section
      2. T-beam – Beam with ‘T’ cross section
      3. C-beam – Beam with ‘C’ cross section
2. Based on equilibrium conditions:
   1. Statically determinate beam – For a statically determinate beam, equilibrium conditions alone can be used to solve reactions.
   2. Statically indeterminate beam – For a statically indeterminate beam, equilibrium conditions are not enough to solve reactions. Additional deflections are needed to solve reactions.

Regulation of Monopoly

The government may wish to regulate monopolies to protect the interests of consumers. For example, monopolies have the market power to set prices higher than in competitive markets. The government can regulate monopolies through price capping, yardstick competition and preventing the growth of monopoly power.

Why the Government Regulates Monopolies

1. Prevent Excess Price. Without government regulation, monopolies could put prices above. This would lead to allocative inefficiency and a decline in consumer welfare.
2. Quality of service. If a firm has a monopoly over the provision of a particular service, it may have little incentive to offer a good quality service. Government regulation can ensure the firm meets minimum standards of service.
3. Monopsony power. A firm with monopoly selling power may also be in a position to exploit monopsony buying power. For example, supermarkets may use their dominant market position to squeeze profit margins of farmers.
4. Promote Competition. In some industries, it is possible to encourage competition, and therefore there will be less need for government regulation.
5. Natural Monopolies. Some industries are natural monopolies – due to high economies of scale, the most efficient number of firms is one. Therefore, we cannot encourage competition and it is essential to regulate the firm to prevent the abuse of monopoly power.

Cobweb model

The cobweb model or cobweb theory is an economic model that explains why prices might be subject to periodic fluctuations in certain types of markets. It describes cyclical supply and demand in a market where the amount produced must be chosen before prices are observed. Producers' expectations about prices are assumed to be based on observations of previous prices. Nicholas Kaldor analyzed the model in 1934, coining the term 'cobweb theorem' (see Kaldor, 1938 and Pashigian, 2008), citing previous analyses in German by Henry Schultz and Umberto Ricci (it).

Contents

  

• 1 The model
• 2 Elasticities versus slopes
• 3 Role of expectations
• 4 Evidence
  • 4.1 Livestock herds
  • 4.2 Human experimental data
  • 4.3 Housing Sector in Israel

The model

The convergent case: each new outcome is successively closer to the intersection of supply and demand.

The divergent case: each new outcome is successively further from the intersection of supply and demand.

The cobweb model is based on a time lag between supply and demand decisions. Agricultural markets are a context where the cobweb model might apply, since there is a lag between planting and harvesting (Kaldor, 1934, p. 133-134 gives two agricultural examples: rubber and corn). Suppose for example that as a result of unexpectedly bad weather, farmers go to market with an unusually small crop of strawberries. This shortage, equivalent to a leftward shift in the market's supply curve, results in high prices. If farmers expect these high price conditions to continue, then in the following year, they will raise their production of strawberries relative to other crops. Therefore when they go to market the supply will be high, resulting in low prices. If they then expect low prices to continue, they will decrease their production of strawberries for the next year, resulting in high prices again.

Active Transport Across Cell Membranes

There are numerous situations in living organisms when molecules move across cell membranes from an area of lower concentration toward an area of higher concentration. This is counter to what would be expected and is labeled "active transport". There is a very strong tendency for molecules to move from higher concentration to low, just based on thermal energy. Molecules at normal temperatures have very high speeds and random motions. For example, water molecules at 20°C have an effective or rms speed of over 600 m/s or over 1400 miles/hr! This motion from areas of high concentration to low is called diffusion. There are times when membranes are impermeable to some molecules because of their size, polarity, etc. and only the smaller solvent molecules like water molecules will move across the membrane. This is called osmosis, and the tendency to transport the solvent molecules is quantified in terms of osmotic pressure. If a molecule is to be transported from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration, work must be done to overcome the influences of diffusion and osmosis. Since in the normal state of a cell, large concentration differences in K+, Na+ and Ca2+ are maintained, it is evident that active transport mechanisms are at work. Many crucial processes in the life of cells depend upon active transport.

Summary of the poem 'my mother'

This poem is written by Ann Taylor.she is very famous for her lyrical poetry. in this poem she used very simple diction. In this poem she expresses her deep love for her mother.She tells that when she was a little child,her mother take care of her perfectly.when she slept in her cradle, her mother sat near the cradle and watched her lovingly.

Acceleration, velocity, and Position

The connections between position, velocity, and acceleration formed one of the important themes of differential calculus. We will find that these relationships also form an important application of the definite integral, especially in cases in which one of the quantities varies with time. 
To discuss these concepts, we will use the notation: 

Relating velocity to acceleration 

Remembering that the acceleration is defined by the derivative

we can apply the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to write this relationship in the form

If we pick call the initial time  and the final time  , then this integral has the form

State diagram

A state diagram is a type of diagram used in computer science and related fields to describe the behavior of systems. State diagrams require that the system described is composed of a finite number of states; sometimes, this is indeed the case, while at other times this is a reasonable abstraction. Many forms of state diagrams exist, which differ slightly and have different semantics.

A state diagram for a door that can only be opened and closed

Contents

  

• 1 Overview
• 2 Directed graph
  • 2.1 Example: DFA, NFA, GNFA, or Moore machine
  • 2.2 Example: Mealy machine
• 3 Harel statechart
• 4 Alternative semantics
• 5 State diagrams versus flowcharts
• 6 Other extensions
• 7 External links

• Directed graph

  

  A directed graph
  A classic form of state diagram for a finite state machine or finite automaton (FA) is a directed graphwith the following elements (Q,Σ,Z,δ,q₀,F):
  • Vertices Q: a finite set of states, normally represented by circles and labeled with unique designator symbols or words written inside them
  • Input symbols Σ: a finite collection of input symbols or designators
  • Output symbols Z: a finite collection of output symbols or designators
  The output function ω represents the mapping of ordered pairs of input symbols and states onto output symbols, denoted mathematically as ω : Σ × Q→ Z.

Covalent bond

"Covalent" redirects here. For other uses, see Covalent (disambiguation).

A covalent bond forming H₂ (right) where two hydrogen atoms share the two electrons

A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. The stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms when they share electrons is known as covalent bonding.For many molecules, the sharing of electrons allows each atom to attain the equivalent of a full outer shell, corresponding to a stable electronic configuration.

Covalent bonding includes many kinds of interactions, including σ-bonding, π-bonding, metal-to-metal bonding,agostic interactions, and three-center two-electron bonds. The term covalent bond dates from 1939.The prefix co- means jointly, associated in action, partnered to a lesser degree, etc.; thus a "co-valent bond", in essence, means that the atoms share "valence", such as is discussed in valence bond theory. In the molecule H
2, the hydrogen atoms share the two electrons via covalent bonding.Covalency is greatest between atoms of similar electronegativities. Thus, covalent bonding does not necessarily require that the two atoms be of the same elements, only that they be of comparable electronegativity. Covalent bonding that entails sharing of electrons over more than two atoms is said to be delocalized.

Contents

  

• 1 History
• 2 Physical properties of covalent compounds (polar and non-polar)
• 3 Polarity of covalent bonds
• 4 Subdivision of covalent bonds
• 5 Sources
• 6 External links

Biochemical Energetics

The free energy change (DG) of a reaction determines its spontaneity. The free energy change (DG), and its relation to equilibrium constant, are discussed on p. 57-59 of Biochemistry 3rd Edition by Voet & Voet. A reaction is spontaneous if DG is negative (if the free energy of the products is less than the free energy of the reactants).

DG = change in free energy, DGo' = standard free energy change (with 1 M reactants and products, at pH 7), R = gas constant, T = absolute temperature.

Note that the standard free energy change (DG^o') of a reaction may be positive, for example, and the actual free energy change (DG) negative, depending on cellular concentrations of reactants and products. Many reactions for which DG^o' is positive are spontaneous because other reactions cause depletion of products or maintenance of high substrate concentrations.

At equilibrium, DG equals zero. Solving for DGo' yields the relationship at left.K'eq, the ratio [C][D]/[A][B] at equilibrium, is called the equilibrium constant. An equilibrium constant greater than one (more products than reactants at equilibrium) indicates a spontaneous reaction (negative DG�').

The variation of equilibrium constant with DG^o' is shown in the table below.

Cell Cycle and Cell Division

The study of the cell cycle focuses on mechanisms that regulate the timing and frequency of DNA duplication and cell division. As a biological concept, the cell cycle is defined as the period between successive divisions of a cell. During this period, the contents of the cell must be accurately replicated. Microscopists had known about cell division for more than one hundred years, but not until the 1950s, through the pioneering work of Alma Howard and Stephen Pelc, did they become aware that DNA replication took place only at a specific phase of the cell cycle and that this phase was clearly separated from mitosis. Howard and Pelc's work in the broad bean, Vicia faba, revealed that the cell goes through many discrete phases before and after cell division. From this understanding, scientists then identified the four characteristic phases of the cell cycle: mitosis (M), gap 1 (G1), DNA synthesis (S), and gap 2 (G2). The study of these phases, the proteins that regulate them, and the complex biochemical interactions that stop or start DNA replication and cell division (cytokinesis) are the primary concerns of cell cycle biologists.

The most significant progress in this research field came with the demonstration that specific protein complexes involving cyclins were critical for regulating the passage of cells through the cell cycle. These early observations came from biological studies of the cells of rapidly dividing fertilized frog eggs as well as mutant yeast cells that could not divide. The observations suggested that regulation of the cell cycle is conserved throughout eukaryotes, which has since proved to be the case. The mechanism of division in bacteria differs from that of eukaryotes, and the control of their cell cycle is also somewhat different, although again it is linked with DNA replication.

PREPARATION OF APPROXIMATE CONSTRUCTION ESTIMATE

Preliminary or approximate estimate is required for studies of various aspects of work of project and for its administrative approval. It can decide, in case of commercial projects, whether the net income earned justifies the amount invested or not. The approximate estimate is prepared from the practical knowledge and cost of similar works. The estimate is accompanied by a report duly explaining necessity and utility of the project and with a site or layout plan. A percentage 5 to 10% is allowed for contingencies.

The following are the methods used for preparation of approximate estimates:

a) Plinth area method

b) Cubical contents methods

c) Unit base method.

A) PLINTH AREA METHOD:

The cost of construction is determined by multiplying plinth area with plinth area rate. The area is obtained by multiplying length and breadth (outer dimensions of building). In fixing the plinth area rate, careful observation and necessary enquiries are made in respect of quality and quantity aspect of materials and labour, type of foundation, height of building, roof, wood work, fixtures, number of storeys etc.

Namaz ka Tariqa (Method of Salat, Prayer)

Namaz ka Tariqa/Tareeqa (Method of Salat/Salah/Prayer)

Unique Features of Aqueous Solutions

An aqueous solution is one that is occurring in water. What makes water significant is that it can allow for substances to dissolve and/or be dissociated into ions within it.

Electrolytes

Water is generally the solvent found in aqueous solution, where a solvent is the substance that dissolves the solute. The solute is the substance or compound being dissolved in the solvent. A solute has fewer number of particles than a solvent, where it's particles are in random motion. Interestingly, aqueous solutions with ions conduct electricity to some degree. Pure water, having a very low concentration of ions, cannot conduct electricity. When a solute dissociates in water to form ions, it is called an electrolyte, due to the solution being a good electrical conductor. When no ions are produced, or the ion content is low, the solute is a non-electrolyte. Non-electrolytes do not conduct electricity or conduct it to a very small degree. In an aqueous solution a strong electrolyte is considered to be completely ionized, or dissociated, in water, meaning it is soluble. Strong acids and bases are usually strong electrolytes. A weak electrolyte then is considered to be one that is not completely dissociated, therefore still containing whole compounds and ions in the solution. Weak acids and bases are generally weak electrolytes. In other words, strong electrolytes have a better tendency to supply ions to the aqueous solution than weak electrolytes, and therefore strong electrolytes create an aqueous solution that is a better conductor of electricity. 

Things to note:

• Most soluble ionic compounds and few molecular compounds are strong electrolytes.
• Most molecular compounds are weak or non electrolytes.

Table of Contents

1. 1. Electrolytes
2. 2. Ion Concentrations
3. 3. Precipitation Reactions
4. 4. Acid Base Reactions
5. 5. Problems
6. 6. Contributors 
7. 
   

   Example 1

   Here's an example of MgCl2 in water: MgCl2→Mg2+(aq)+2Cl−(aq) The ionic compound dissociates completely to form ions in water, therefore, it is a strong electrolyte.  Now let's look at a weak electrolyte: HC2H3O2(aq)⇌H+(aq)+C2H3O−2(aq) The ionic compound, HC2H3O2 in this situation, only partially dissociates, as expressed by the double arrows in the reaction. This means that the reaction is reversible and never goes to completion. The H+ cation is a proton that interacts with the H2O molecules that it is submerged in. The interaction is called hydration. The actual H+ ion does not exist in the aqueous solution. It is the hydronium ion, H3O+ that interacts with water to create additional species like H5O+2, H9O+4, and H7O+3. H3O+ can simply be described as the hydration of one H+ and one water molecule. For nonelectrolytes, all that needs to be done is write the molecular formula because no reaction or dissociation occurs. One example of a nonelectrolyte is sugar: written as C6H12O6(aq).