Thermometer

Definition: A thermometer is a device that measures temperature. When we touch something we either feel hot or cold or we may not feel anything at all. This relative feeling is a qualitative measurement which can tell whether the body is warm or cold. But this type of observation can not tell how much hot or how much cold it is. Hence, in order to get a quantitative value of temperature we must be able to measure it and get a number corresponding to the degree of hotness or coldness. A thermometer helps us measure this quantity called temperature.

Temperature is that property of a system which can tell whether the system is in thermal equilibrium with another system or not. It is also the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.Thermometric Property: Change in temperature of any material is associated with change in its other properties such as Pressure, Volume, Density, Electrical resistance, color, etc.

Strength of Materials - Strains

3. Strains

Strain is defined a the ratio of change in dimension to original dimension of a body when it is deformed. It is a dimensionless quantity as it is a ratio between two quantities of same dimension.

3.1. Linear Strain
Linear strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the change in length of the body due to the deformation to its original length in the direction of the force. If l is the original length and dl the change in length occurred due to the deformation, the linear strain e induced is given by e=dl/l.

Linear strain may be a tensile strain, et or a compressive strain ec according as dl refers to an increase in length or a decrease in length of the body. If we consider one of these as +ve then the other should be considered as –ve, as these are opposite in nature.

Defining High, Mid and Low-Level Languages

I’ve been writing quite a bit recently about the differences between languages. Mostly I’ve just been whining about how annoying it is that everyone keeps searching for the “one language to rule them all”, the Aryan Language if you will. Over the course of some of these articles, I’ve made some rather loosely defined references to terms like “general purpose” and “mid-level” when trying to describe these languages.

Several people have (rightly) called me out on these terms, arguing that I haven’t really defined what they mean, so I shouldn’t be using them to try to argue a certain point. In the case of “general purpose language”, I have to admit that I tend to horribly misuse the term and any instances within my writing should be discarded without thought. However, I think with a little bit of reflection, we can come to some reasonable definitions for high-, mid- and low-level languages.

General

All living cells have the ability to react to stimuli. Nervous tissue is specialised to react to stimuli and to conduct impulses to various organs in the body which bring about a response to the stimulus. Nerve tissue (as in the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves that branch throughout the body) are all made up of specialised nerve cells called neurons. Neurons are easily stimulated and transmit impulses very rapidly. A nerve is made up of many nerve cell fibres (neurons) bound together by connective tissue. A sheath of dense connective tissue, the epineurium surrounds the nerve. This sheath penetrates the nerve to form the perineurium which surrounds bundles of nerve fibres. blood vessels of various sizes can be seen in the epineurium. Theendoneurium, which consists of a thin layer of loose connective tissue, surrounds the individual nerve fibres.

Angle of repose

The angle of repose or the critical angle of repose,of a granular material is the steepest angle of descent or dip relative to the horizontal plane to which a material can be piled without slumping. At this angle, the material on the slope face is on the verge of sliding. The angle of repose can range from 0° to 90°. Smooth, rounded sand grains cannot be piled as steeply as can rough, interlocking sands. If a small amount of water is able to bridge the gaps between particles, electrostatic attraction of the water to mineral surfaces will increase soil strength.

Operations

In FORTRAN, addition and subtraction are denoted by the usual plus (+) and minus (-) signs. Multiplication is denoted by an asterisk (*). This symbol must be used to denote every multiplication; thus to multiply N by 2, we must use 2 * N or N * 2not 2N. Division is denoted by a slash (/), and exponentiation is denoted by a pair of asterisks (**).

Operator	Operation
+	addition, unary plus
-	subtraction, unary minus
*	multiplication
/	division
**	exponentiation

Organic Compounds

The chemical compounds of living things are known as organic compounds because of their association with organisms. Organic compounds, which are the compounds associated with life processes, are the subject matter of organic chemistry. Among the numerous types of organic compounds, four major categories are found in all living things: carbohydrates, lipids, protein, and nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates

Almost all organisms use carbohydrates as sources of energy. In addition, some carbohydrates serve as structural materials. Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:1.

potential benefits from monopoly

The debate about monopoly will never be settled! The consensus seems to be that the economic case for and against monopoly needs to be judged on a case by case basis - particularly when assessing the impact on economic welfare.

The standard economic case against monopoly is that, with the same cost structure, a monopoly supplier will produce at a lower output and charge a higher price than a competitive industry. This leads to a net loss of economic welfare and efficiency because price is driven above marginal cost - leading to allocative inefficiency.

The diagram below shows how price and output differ between a competitive and a monopolistic industry. We have assumed that the cost structure for both the competitive firm and the monopoly is the same - indeed we have assumed that output can be supplied at a constant marginal and average cost.

Assuming that the monopolist seeks to maximise profits and that they take the whole of the market demand curve, then the price under monopoly will be higher and the output lower than the competitive market equilibrium.

A curve that graphically represents the relation between average total cost incurred by a firm in the short-run product of a good or service and the quantity produced. The average total cost curve is constructed to capture the relation between average total cost and the level of output, holding other variables, like technology and resource prices, constant. The average total cost curve is one of three average curves. The other two are average variable cost curve and average fixed cost curve. A related curve is the marginal cost curve.

The average total cost curve is U-shaped. Average total cost is relatively high for small quantities of output, then as production increases, it declines, reaches a minimum value, then rises.

Because average total cost is a combination of average variable cost andaverage fixed cost, the U-shape of the average total cost curve is a result of both underlying averages. At small production quantities, both average fixed cost and average variable cost decline, resulting in a negatively-sloped average total cost curve.

Negative Effects of Computers and the Internet on Society

Computers and the Internet have touched almost all aspects of life. It is rare to come across a business or household that does not experience routine use of a computer in some shape or form.

Technology has allowed people to have higher levels of convenience and proficiency. Many people today would find it very difficult to go back to an age where computers were not in existence.

In addition, society has become accustomed to on-demand answers or solutions to requests or services and the Internet is the platform which fulfills this need. These are some of the positive effects of technology on society.

Parts of a roof truss

A roof truss is an engineered panel made up of triangular parts. Set out below are the main structural components and fixing points in a standard 'A' type truss.

Apex
Apex plate
Top chord
Heel plate
1/3 point plate
Bottom chord
Slice plate
Heel
1/4 point plate
Web
Nominal span
Overhang

Columns fail by buckling when their critical load is reached. Long columns can be analysed with the Euler column formula

F = n π² E I / L² (1)

where

F = allowable load (lb, N)

n = factor accounting for the end conditions

E = modulus of elastisity (lb/in², Pa (N/m²))

L = length of column (in, m)

I = Moment of inertia (in⁴, m⁴)

Factor Counting for End Conditions

column pivoted in both ends : n = 1

Types Of Electric Meter

In modern days, the types of electric meter continuously operate to measure the instantaneous voltage and current and calculating the product of these to give out the instantaneous electrical power. The electric power is then integrated against time to give energy used. There are basically two kinds of electric meter categories, the electromechanical and solid state meters.

Electromechanical Technology: The most common electric meter type is the Thomson electric meter which falls under the electromechanical category. This was invented by Elihu Thomson in 1888. The working pf this electromechanical induction electric meter is very simple to understand.

Positive Effects of Computers and the Internet on Society

Computers and the Internet have touched almost all aspects of life. It is rare to come across a business or household that does not experience routine use of a computer in some shape or form.

Technology has allowed people to have higher levels of convenience and proficiency. Many people today would find it very difficult to go back to an age where computers were not in existence.

While there have been many positive effects of computers on society, there have also been some drawbacks too. Issues such as security and complacency have increased in addition to society's ever growing dependence on computers.Let's take a look at some of the positive and negative effects of computers and the Internet on society:

What are the differences between hardware and software?

Computer hardware is any physical device used in or with your machine, whereas software is a collection of code installed onto your computer's hard drive; it is intangible. For example, the computer monitor you are using to read this text and the mouse you are using to navigate this web page is computer hardware. TheInternet browser that allowed you to visit this page and the operating system that the browser is running on is considered software.

What is a Hot Tap and why it is made?

Hot Taps or Hot Tapping is the ability to safely tie into a pressurized system, by drilling or cutting, while it is on stream and under pressure.

Typical connections consist:

Tapping fittings like Weldolet®, Reinforced Branch or Split Tee.
Split Tees often to be used as branch and main pipe has the same diameters.
Isolation Valve like gate or Ball Valve.
Hot tapping machine which includes the cutter, and housing.

Mechanical fittings may be used for making hot taps on pipelines and mains provided they are designed for the operating pressure of the pipeline or main, and are suitable for the purpose.

Central processing unit

A central processing unit (CPU) is the hardware within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetical, logical, control and input/output operations of the system. The term has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s.The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains much the same.

A computer can have more than one CPU; this is called multiprocessing. All modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning contained on a single chip. Some integrated circuits (ICs) can contain multiple CPUs on a single chip; those ICs are called multi-core processors. An IC containing a CPU can also contain memory, peripheral devices, and other components of a computer system; this is called a system on a chip (SoC).

System Bus in Computers

A computer bus transfers data between components of a computer system. A system bus is a single computer bus for the data transfer between the central processing unit and the memory. The transfer speed of the system bus is a critical element of the overall performance of a computer.

We also recommend watching How Star, Bus, Ring & Mesh Topology Connect Computer Networks in Organizations and Computer System Components: Computer Parts & Functions

Definitions

A computer system consists of a central processing unit (CPU) for processing data, main memory to store the data being processed and multiple input and output devices. There various components have to be connected to each other for the transfer of data. A computer bus is a subsystem of the computer that makes these transfers happen. In early computer systems all transfers used actual cables. Large bundles of wires were organized using 'bus bars,' which is where the term bus comes from.The most critical connection of any computer system is the system bus. This is a single computer bus that controls the transfers between the CPU, the main memory, and the input/output devices.

PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS AGAINST DAMPNESS

One of the requirements of the building is that it should be dry. Dampness in a building may occur due to bad design, faultyconstruction and use of poor quality of materials. Dampness not only affects the life of the building but also creates unhygienic conditions of the important items of work in the construction of a building. The treatment given to prevent leakage of water from roof is generally termed as water proofing whereas the treatment given to keep the walls, floors and basement dry is termed as damp proofing.

DEFECTS OF DAMPNESS IN BUILDINGS:

The various defects caused by dampness to building may be summarized as under:

It causes efflorescence which may ultimately result in disintegration of bricks, stones, tiles etc.
It may result in softening and crumbling of plaster.
It may cause bleaching and flaking of paint with the formation of coloured patches.
It may result in the warping, buckling and rotting of timber.
It may lead to the corrosion of metals.

Deforestation

The term deforestation connotes transformation of forested land to permanently cleared land or to a shifting-cultivation cycle1. It involves permanent destruction of forest land by virtue of human activities such as logging and burning of trees in forested regions.

Global warming
Deforestation and destruction of rainforests have several adverse consequences, the most significant being global warming, which occurs due to increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, in turn, raising the global mean temperature. Carbon-dioxide or CO2 is the main greenhouse gas. Trees absorb CO2 reducing its concentration in the environment. Conversely, forest clearance and wood burning add to the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. Destruction of forests implies lesser trees to absorb the greenhouse gas promoting global warming. Research indicates that deforestation, biomass burning and other land use practices account for over 18 percent of enhanced radiative forces causing global warming, far outweighing the effects of carbon emissions from planes, automobiles and factories With the extent of deforestation worldwide, its impact on global warming knows no bounds. For example, 500 million tonnes of CO2 were released into the atmosphere as a consequence of the 1987 burning of the Amazon rain forest. In another instance, the forest fires of Indonesia in 1997 consumed over a million hectares of forest land created a cloud of smog over all of Southeast Asia, from Thailand to Philippines, for over a month, in addition to their effect on global climate.

Lateral earth pressure

Lateral earth pressure is the pressure that soil exerts in the horizontal direction. The lateral earth pressure is important because it affects the consolidation behavior and strength of the soil and because it is considered in the design of geotechnical engineering structures such as retaining walls, basements, tunnels, deep foundations and braced excavations.

The coefficient of lateral earth pressure, K, is defined as the ratio of the horizontaleffective stress, σ’_h, to the vertical effective stress, σ’_v. The effective stress is the intergranular stress calculated by subtracting the pore pressure from the total stress as described in soil mechanics. K for a particular soil deposit is a function of the soil properties and the stress history. The minimum stable value of K is called the active earth pressure coefficient, K_a; the active earth pressure is obtained, for example,when a retaining wall moves away from the soil. The maximum stable value of K is called the passive earth pressure coefficient, K_p; the passive earth pressure would develop, for example against a vertical plow that is pushing soil horizontally. For a level ground deposit with zero lateral strain in the soil, the "at-rest" coefficient of lateral earth pressure, K₀ is obtained.

Classification of Bacteria

Bacteria and blue-green algae are prokaryotes—that is, they are organisms that lack membranes surrounding their genetic material. Today most scientists place prokaryotes in the kingdom Monera. Formerly, bacteria and blue-green algae were considered to be primitive plants and were classified in the plant kingdom.

Bacteria are generally classified by two methods. The simplest and oldest method is by shape. The three principal categories are:

Bacilli

(singular: Bacillus), rod-shaped bacteria; the most numerous of all types. They include coccobacilli and streptobacilli.

Cocci

(singular: Coccus), spherical bacteria. This group is divided into bacteria that occur in pairs, such as the diplococci; in clusters, such as the staphylococci; and in chains, such as the streptococci.

Introduction

1. One of the main purposes of your topographical survey may be to determine the area of a tract of land where you want to build a fish-farm. From existing topographical maps, you may need to calculate the area of a watershed or of a future reservoir (see Water, Volume 4 in this series).

Note: in land surveying, you should regard land areas as horizontal surfaces, not as the actual area of the ground surface. You always measurehorizontal distances.

2. You will often need to know the areas of cross-section profiles to calculate the amount of earthwork you need to do.

Horizontal area

Cross-section area

3. You may determine areas either directly from field measurements, or indirectly, from a plan or map. In the first case, you will find all the measurements of distances and angles you need by surveying, and you will calculate the areas from them. In the second case, you will draw a plan or map first (see Chapter 9). Then you will get the dimensions you need from the scale, and determine the area on that basis.

Total variable cost per unit of output, found by dividing total variable cost by the quantity of output. When compared with price (per unit revenue), average variable cost (AVC) indicates whether or not a profit-maximizing firm should shut down production in the short run. Average variable cost is one of three average cost concepts important to short-run production analysis. The other two are average total cost and average fixed cost. A related concept is marginal cost.

Average variable cost is the total variable cost per unit of output incurred when a firm engages in short-run production. It can be found in two ways. Because average variable cost is total variable cost per unit of output, it can be found by dividing total variable cost by the quantity of output. Alternatively, because total variable cost is the difference between of total cost and total fixed cost, average variable cost can be derived by subtracting average fixed cost from average total cost.

Integration by Parts

First let’s take a look at the following.

So, that was simple enough. Now, let’s take a look at,

To do this integral we’ll use the following substitution.

Again, simple enough to do provided you remember how to do substitutions. By the way make sure that you can do these kinds of substitutions quickly and easily. From this point on we are going to be doing these kinds of substitutions in our head. If you have to stop and write these out with every problem you will find that it will take you significantly longer to do these problems.

The surface of revolution of the parabola which is the shape used in the reflectors of automobile headlights (Steinhaus 1999, p. 242; Hilbert and Cohn-Vossen 1999). It is a quadratic surface which can be specified by the Cartesian equation

(1)

The paraboloid which has radius

at height

is then given parametrically by

			(2)
			(3)
			(4)

where

.
The coefficients of the first fundamental form are given by

			(5)
			(6)

Shallow foundations
Deep foundations

Shallow foundations (sometimes called 'spread footings') include pads ('isolated footings'), strip footings and rafts.
Deep foundations include piles, pile walls, diaphragm walls and caissons.

Shallow foundations

Pad foundations
Strip foundations
Raft foundations

Shallow foundations are those founded near to the finished ground surface; generally where the founding depth (D_f) is less than the width of the footing and less than 3m. These are not strict rules, but merely guidelines: basically, if surface loading or other surface conditions will affect the bearing capacity of a foundation it is 'shallow'. Shallow foundations (sometimes called 'spread footings') include pads ('isolated footings'), strip footings and rafts.
Shallows foundations are used when surface soils are sufficiently strong and stiff to support the imposed loads; they are generally unsuitable in weak or highly compressible soils, such as poorly-compacted fill, peat, recent lacustrine and alluvial deposits, etc.

CONCRETE FRAME STRUCTURES

Concrete frame structures are a very common - or perhaps the most common- type of modern building. As the name suggests, this type of building consists of a frame or skeleton of concrete. Horizontal members of this frame are called beams, and vertical members are called columns. Humans walk on flat planes of concrete called slabs. Of these, the column is the most important, as it is the primary load-carrying element of the building (See figure 2 at the bottom of the page for an illustration of each of the major parts of a frame structure). If you damage a beam in a building, it will usually affect only one floor, but damage to a column could bring down the entire building.

Expectations Theory (With Diagram)

Inflation and Unemployment: Phillips Curve and Rational Expectations Theory!

In the simple Keynesian model of an economy, the aggregate supply curve (with variable price level) is of inverse L-shape, that is, it is a horizontal straight line up to the full-employment level of output and beyond that it becomes horizontal.

This means that during recession or depression when the economy is having a good deal of excess capacity and large-scale unemployment of labour and idle capital stock, the aggregate supply curve is perfectly elastic. When full employment level of output is reached, aggregate supply curve becomes perfectly inelastic.

Inflation-Unemployment Trade -Off: Phillips Curve:

However, the actual empirical evidence did not fit well in the above simple Keynesian macro model. A noted British economist, A.W. Phillips published an article in 1958 based on his good deal of research using historical data from the U.K. for about 100 years in which he arrived at the conclusion that there in fact existed an inverse relationship between rate of unemployment and rate of inflation.

KEY POINTS

The long-run Phillips curve is a vertical line at the natural rate of unemployment, but the short-runPhillips curve is roughly L-shaped.
The inverse relationship shown by the short-run Phillips curve only exists in the short-run; there is notrade-off between inflation and unemployment in the long run.
Economic events of the 1970's disproved the idea of a permanently stable trade-off between unemployment and inflation.

TERM

Phillips curve
A graph that shows the inverse relationship between the rate of unemployment and the rate of inflation in an economy.

Planting Mustard Seeds: How To Grow Mustard Seed Plants

Many people do not realize that a mustard seed plant is the same plant as a mustard greens plant (Brassica juncea). This versatile plant can be grown as a vegetable and eaten like other greens or, if allowed to flower and go to seed, mustard seeds can be harvested and used as a spice in cooking or ground into a popular condiment. Learning how to grow mustard seeds is easy and rewarding.mustard seeds is easy and rewarding.

mustard-seeds

1. In coordinate geometry tandrigonometry

The coordinate plane is organized around two axes: the x-axis running horizontally, and the y-axis running vertically. The position of a point on the plane is described by two numbers that measure the distance from the point to these two reference lines. See Coordinates of a point

Asymptote

A line that a curve approaches, as it heads towards infinity:

Types

There are three types: horizontal, vertical and oblique:

it can be in a negative direction,